Introduction

Quinoa (Chenopodium Quinoa Willd.) is a plant which belongs to Chenopodiacea family. Quinoa has been grown in the Andean region for 5000 years1 . Nowadays it is mainly grown in Peru, Bolvia, Ecuador, Argentina, Chile and Coloumbia2 . It has been introduced in Europe, North America and Africa since last years because of adapting different types of soil and climatic conditions3 . Quinoa has been produced in Turkey since 2010 and its production became commercial size in 20154 .

In the far east quinoa is also known as “functional food”. “Functional food” term was originated in Japan in the 1980s. Food scientists submitted evidence that their foods had “advantageous physiological effects.” Approved foods then acquired special FOSHU or Food for Specific Health Uses labels. Subsequent countries and scientific organizations attempted to create their own definitions of functional food. This bred high sales but confusion among the public as to the meaning of functional food. The Functional Food Center (FFC) defines “functional food” as natural or processed foods that contains known or unknown biologically-active compounds; the foods, in defined, effective, and non-toxic amounts, provide a clinically proven and documented health benefit for the prevention, management, or treatment of chronic disease. This definition is unique because of its acknowledgement of “bioactive compounds” or biochemical molecules that improve health through physiological mechanisms. Also, this definition notes that bioactive compounds must be taken in non-toxic amounts because bioactive compounds have upper limits before they become dangerous5 .

Quinoa can be used in different foods such as bread, cookies, biscuit etc. and can be fermented to make beer6,7 . Also, quinoa does not include gluten so it is a valuable dietary source for people with gluten sensitivity and celiac diseases1.

Quinoa has high nutritional and functional content that is associated with high protein, fats, vitamins and minerals8 . It contains avarage %15 protein and its protein components are higher than other grains. Its main included proteins are albumin(35%) and globulins (37%). It provides all essential aminoacids3. Its major saturated fatty acid is palmitic acid and linoleic acid. Alpha- linoleic acid represent 88% of total fatty acid as unsaturated fatty acids9 . Its vitamin contents’ such as riboflavin (B2), pyridoxine (B6), vitamin E and vitamin C, folic acid are more than other grains(2). It contains high quantity calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc. Also magnesium, calcium and potassium are found in bioavaible forms in it10 .(Table 1)

The phytochemicals stored in quinoa are saponins, phytosterols, phytoecdysteroids and betalains. Saponins’ structure has steroids or triterpenoid aglycone11. Quinoa seeds have most types of saponin chemical structures. Today, it has been reported that quinoa seeds include 68 new types of saponin12. Saponins are found as cholesterol complexes and other steroids contents of cell membranes13. Saponins provide antifungal, anticancer, hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, antithrombotic, diüretic and anti-inflammatory activities14. The components of phytosterols in quina seeds are β- sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol. The phytosterols are found in more quinoa then other grains15. Phytosterols are structurally similar to cholesterol. It blocks cholesterols’ intestinal absorption and decreases atherogenic lipoprotein production. Phytoecdysteroids have potential pharmacological and metabolic effects in mammals3. Phytoecdysteroids’ bioactivities are antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, antidepresive, antioxidant, hepatoprotective and neuroprotective. Ouinoa seeds has at least 13 different phtoecdysteroids and 20HE is the most found in these.20HE can be used for oral or topical sex hormone supplementation becase of its low toxicity16. It has been demonstrated that 20HE provides reducing adiposity, lowered blood glocose levels in obesity17 . When quinoa compared among other plants for phytoecdysteroid contents’ levels, its seeds contain nearly 10 times more 20HE then spinach and 25 times more than bitter16,18,19. (Table 2 )

Phenolics contain hyroxyl groups that provide antioxidant activity20. Polyphenols have subgroups and one of them is flavanoids21. Its phenolic acid and flavonoids contents provides inhibitors effect on α- glucosidase and pancreatic lipase enziymes4. Betanins and isobetanins’ effects are similar to phenolics in human health22. Some studies showed that the betanins in qunioa provide more antioxidant activities than polyphenols23.

Table 1 The nutritional and bioactive components of quinoa
Contents Quantity
Proteins
Total protein 8-22 %
Prolamin 0.5-7 %
Albumin and Globulin 44-77 %
Fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids 12.3-19 %
Monounsaturated fatty acid 25-28.7 %
Squalene 33.9-58.4 mg / 100 g
Oleic acid 58.3 %
Linoleic acid 90 %
Minerals
Calcium 874 mg / kg
Iron 81 mg / kg
Vitamins
Vitamin E 0.59-2.6 mg / 100 g
Vitamin C 16.4 mg / 100 g
Folic Acid 78.1 mg / 100 g
Tiamin 0.4 mg / 100 g
Phytochemicals
Phytosterols 118 mg / 100 g
Phytoecdysteroids 138-570 µg / g
Phenolics 251.5 µg / g (dry weight)
Betain 3930-6000 µg / g

Table 2 The comparison of plants for phytoecdysteroid contents
Name Scientific Name Plant part Phytoecdysteroid content
Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Seed 109 to 497 µg/g 20HE138 to 570 µg/ phytoecdysteroids
Bitter Dioscorea dumetorum Kunth Dried rhizome 22 µg/g (20)- 5β, 11α, 20- trihydroxyecdysone; 266 µg/g ajugasterone C; 32 µg/g herkesterone
Spinach Spinacia oleracea L. Dry leaves 40 µg/g 20HE
Fresh leaves 40µg/g phytoecdysteroids
Fresh rooots and stem 100µg/g phytoecdysteroids
Fresh whole plants 100 to 200 µg/g phytoecdysteroids

The effects of quinoa on health

Quinoa may have benefical effects on high risk groups such as elderly, children, patients with anemia, obesity, dyslipidemia, celiac diseases due to its high proteins, fibers, minerals, vitamins, fatty acids and specially phytochemicals contents3. It has antifungal, antiviral, anticancer, hypocholestromic, hypoglisemic, antithrombotic, diüretic and anti-inflammatory biological activities that provided by saponins24. But the trials of quinoa about human health are still limited3.

Quinoa effects on cardiovascular risk factors

In a study, the effects of dietary quinoa on parameters for risk of cardiovascular diseases were evaluated after 30 d consumption in twenty-two 18 to 45-year-old students. In this study daily consumption of a quinoa cereal bar for 30 days significantly lowered triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL levels Meanwhile, blood glucose levels, body weight, and blood pressure each decreased, though nonsignificantly So, quinoa flakes can be used in cereal bars or can be added in food products such as cookies, breakfast cereals, and diet supplements25. In China, recent changes to traditional diets, including a dramatic decrease in amounts of whole grains consumed from 104 g/d in 1982 to 24 g/d in 2002 may be responsible for the elevated CVD mortality seen in this country26 . On the other hand, Liangkui Li et al showed that daily consumption of quinoa in this short-term intervention appears to modify glucose response, but has minimal effects on other CVD risk biomarkers27. Daily intake of 25 grams of quinoa flakes, not the corn flakes, in postmenopausal women was shown to reduce total cholesterol and LDL-c and to increase in GSH in a prospective and double-blind study28.

Seeds of quinoa are an excellent source of antioxidants.It has been seen that quinoa reduced oxidative stres by decreasing malondialdehyde in the plasma and increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, erythrocyte superoxide dismutase, plasma glutathione peroxidase29. Despite the wide usage of these chemical-based antioxidant activity assays, they lack the in vivo physiological relevance in pH and temperature, and more importantly in bioavailability, uptake, and metabolism of the antioxidant compounds30.

Quinoa may inhibit over production of NO. NO acts as a necessary component in the regulation of various physiological functions such as blood pressure, immune response and neural communication under normal physiological conditions31. But overproduction of NO can induce tissue damage and is associated with inflammatory diseases including atherosclerosis and hypertension32,33. An inhibitory activity against NO production in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells was shown in previous studies and these data are related to the higher level of total phenolic content in the ethanolic extracts when compared to the water extract34. Also, the secondary metabolite of plants has also been reported to act as excellent anti-inflammatory agent in oxidative stress and inflammation35. There is a growing body of epidemiological studies supporting an inverse association between whole grain consumption and risk of several chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases36,37.

The other effects of quinoa

Antimicrobial and antifungal effects: The quinoa saponin fractions inhibits the growth of C. Albicans38. The seeds of quinoa have found more effective than Amoxisin against E. Coli and S. Aureus39.

Anticancer effects: The phenolic compound of quinoa is related with inbition of tumor angiogenesis that provides cancer promotion and progression40. In a study, it has been showed that the phenolic fraction of quinoa was effect on prostat cancer cells in rats. It is thought that fhenolic components of quinoa may be benefical by providing intracellular signaling associated with oxidative stres and reactive oxigen radicals41.

Celiac diseses: Quinoa does not include gluten content so it is tolerated by celiac patients. In a study, 50 g quinoa was given 19 patients with celiac disease everyday for 6 weeks and the end of the study; serology, gastrointestinal parameters of patients were evaluated. The study findings showed the patients gastrointestinal parameters’ were normal after use quinoa and the structure of villus returned normal size and length42.

Increase of IGF-1: In a study, 100 g quinoa added baby foods twice a day in Ecuador. The babies fed with quinoa have high IGF-1 levels in their plasma when compared with control group. It can reflect that quinoa can prevent the malnutrition in infants 43.

Weight losing effects: The high fatty diet with 20-hydroxyecdysone (20HE) riched by quinoa may provide the absorption of lipids, increasing glucose oxidation/mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and spending energy44.

Gatrointestinal benefits: It has been showed that the arabinan and pectin isolated by quinoa made smaller the gastric lesions in rats. According to this study’ results, the quinoa may increase the mucosal synthesis or the capacity to bind to the supercifial mucosa and may cover the surface of gastric mucosa45 .(Table 3,Table 4)

Table 3 The non- cardiac benefits of quinoa
Quinoa inhibits the proliferation of bacterias and fungals.
Quinoa inhibits the releasing of IL-6 and IL-1β.
Quinoa have anticancerogenic and antioxidative effects.
Quinoa provide losing weight and increases the insülin sensivities.
Quinoa increase the plasma levels of IGF-1.
Quinoa improve the gastric parameters and the structure of villus in celiac patients.
Quinoa have gastroprotective activity.

Table 4 The benefits of quinoa on cardiovascular risk factors
Quinoa decreases the blood glucose levels.
Quinoa edits the blood pressure.
Quinoa lowers total cholesterol, triglyceride and LDL levels.
Quinoa inhibits over production of NO that causes tissue damage so it can prevent chronic inflammatory diseases including atherosclerosis.

The side effects of quinoa

There are few case-reports about the allergic reactions due to quinoa. One of them was a 38-year-old female patient with eosinophilic esophagitis caused by quinoa and her skin princk test was pozitif forquinoa46. Others of them were a 29-year-old woman that has urticaria and angioedema in the lips after eating quinoa salad47 and another case was a 52-year-old male diagnosed with quinoa allergy reported48.

CONCLUSION

Quinoa has rich nutritional value and functional various biological activities that are provided by phytochemical composition. Despite more studies in invitro environments about quinoa, the studies on humans are unfortunately limited. The effect of food processing on the bioaccessibility, bioavailability and bioactivity of phytochemicals in quinoa seeds has not well studied yet. New varieties rich in these bioactive components and incorporation into functional foods are also important areas of future research. Further investigation is necessary to validate the effect of the components in quinoa on potential CVD preventing benefits in humans.

Financial support and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.?

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